Furthermore, sex had a significant effect on sleep parameters related to sleep-wake times (reduced total sleep time, sleep period time, and sleep efficiency in women), related to sleep initiation (longer sleep onset latency and REM sleep latency in women), and related to sleep maintenance (less awakenings and sleep stage shifts in women), respectively. The amount of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep was also significantly lower in females, whereas stage N2 sleep was increased. For variables related to sleep architecture in elderly, Danker-Hopfe et al 6 observed a statistically significant reduced proportion of stage N1 sleep in women compared to men, which was in line with the other studies mentioned above. To address this lack of information on possible sex differences in the elderly, Danker-Hopfe et al 6 performed a secondary analysis on macrostructural data that had been collected with the purpose of investigating a possible impact of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) on sleep in 60–80-year-old healthy men and women (note that only data recorded under an experimental condition without RF-EMF exposure were considered for the present analysis). 3, 5 However, older adults are underrepresented in the respective study samples, hence most of the currently known variations with age and sex are more robust for individuals up to an age of 60 years. Amongst others, the amount of stage N1 sleep has been shown to be lower in women compared to men, 3–5 while at the same time stage N3 sleep was higher in women. 2–5 Sex differences in the macrostructure of sleep are less pronounced affecting predominantly variables related to sleep stage proportions. Marked age-related variations have been reported, eg, for the total sleep time (decrease with age) and the associated wake time after sleep onset (increase with age), resulting in a reduced sleep efficiency index. It is well documented that many of these variables change over the lifespan and/or exhibit sex differences at specific stages of life. 1 Visual and computer-assisted sleep scorings yield a hypnogram from which various variables can be derived that describe the macrostructure of sleep. These EEG signals along with recordings of eye movements (electrooculography EOG) and of activities from the chin muscle (electromyography EMG) provide the basis for the assignment of sleep stages in healthy and sleep-disturbed individuals. Electroencephalography (EEG) is the most essential component of a PSG. Polysomnography (PSG) is a sleep recording technique, which is used in sleep research and as a diagnostic tool in sleep medicine.
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